Foreword xvii
Preface xxi
Section I Applied Principles of Controls 1 (196)
Important Safety Guidelines for Readers 3 (2)
Introduction to Controls 5 (6)
ModelQ Simulation Environment 6 (1)
Installation of ModelQ 6 (1)
Errata 7 (1)
The Control System 7 (1)
The Controller 7 (1)
The Machine 8 (1)
The Controls Engineer 8 (3)
The Frequency Domain 11 (20)
The Laplace Transform 11 (1)
Transfer Functions 12 (2)
What is s? 13 (1)
Linearity, Time Invariance, and Transf...er 13 (1)
Functions
Examples of Transfer Functions 14 (5)
Transfer Functions of Controller Elements 14 (2)
Transfer Functions of Power Conversion 16 (1)
Transfer Functions of Physical Elements 16 (3)
Transfer Functions of Feedback 19 (1)
Block Diagrams 19 (2)
Combining Blocks 20 (1)
Phase and Gain 21 (3)
Phase and Gain from Transfer Functions 23 (1)
Bode Plots: Phase and Gain versus 23 (1)
Frequency
Measuring Performance 24 (7)
Command Response 25 (2)
Stability 27 (1)
Time Domain versus Frequency Domain 28 (1)
Experiment 2-1: PI+ Controller 29 (2)
Tuning a Control System 31 (26)
Closing Loops 32 (2)
The Source of Instability 32 (2)
A Detailed Review of the Model 34 (5)
Integrator 35 (1)
Power Converter 36 (1)
PI Control Law 37 (2)
Feedback Filter 39 (1)
The Open-Loop Method 39 (2)
Margins of Stability 41 (4)
Quantifying GM and PM 42 (1)
Experiment 3-1: Understanding the 42 (1)
Open-Loop Method
Open Loop, Closed Loop, and the Step 43 (2)
Response
A Zone-Based Tuning Procedure 45 (4)
Zone One: Proportional 47 (1)
Zone Two: Integral 48 (1)
Variation in Plant Gain 49 (2)
Accommodating Changing Gain 50 (1)
Multiple (Cascaded) Loops 51 (1)
Saturation and Synchronization 52 (5)
Avoid Saturation when Tuning 55 (2)
Delay in Digital Controllers 57 (12)
How Sampling Works 58 (1)
Sources of Delay in Digital Systems 59 (3)
Sample-and-Hold Delay 59 (1)
Calculation Delay 60 (1)
Velocity Estimation 61 (1)
The Sum of the Delays 61 (1)
Experiment 4-1: Understanding Delay in 62 (3)
Digital Control
Tuning the Controller 63 (2)
Selecting the Sample Time 65 (4)
Aggressive Assumptions for General Systems 65 (1)
Aggressive Assumptions for Position-Based 66 (1)
Motion Systems
Moderate and Conservative Assumptions 67 (2)
The z-Domain 69 (30)
Introduction to the z-Domain 69 (3)
Definition of z 69 (1)
z-Domain Transfer Functions 70 (1)
Bilinear Transform 70 (2)
z Phasors 72 (1)
Aliasing 73 (2)
Experiment 5-1: Aliasing 75 (3)
Bode Plots and Block Diagrams in z 77 (1)
DC Gain 77 (1)
From Transfer Function to Algorithm 78 (2)
Functions for Digital Systems 80 (10)
Digital Integrals and Derivatives 80 (3)
Digital Derivatives 83 (4)
Sample-and-Hold 87 (2)
DAC/ADC: Converting to and from Analog 89 (1)
Reducing the Calculation Delay 90 (1)
Selecting a Processor 91 (3)
Fixed- and Floating-Point Math 91 (2)
Overrunning the Sample Time 93 (1)
Other Algorithms 93 (1)
Ease of Programming 93 (1)
The Processor's Future 93 (1)
Making the Selection 94 (1)
Quantization 94 (5)
Limit Cycles and Dither 95 (2)
Offset and Limit Cycles 97 (2)
Six Types of Controllers 99 (34)
Tuning in This Chapter 100 (1)
Using the Proportional Gain 101 (4)
P Control 101 (4)
Using the Integral Gain 105 (9)
PI Control 105 (5)
PI + Control 110 (4)
Using the Differential Gain 114 (9)
PID Control 115 (8)
PID + Control 123 (3)
How to Tune a PID + Controller 124 (2)
PD Control 126 (1)
How to Tune a PD Controller 127 (1)
Choosing the Controller 127 (2)
Experiment 6-1: PID Controller 129 (4)
Disturbance Response 133 (26)
Disturbances 134 (7)
Distrubance Response of a Power Supply 137 (4)
Disturbance Response of a Velocity 141 (6)
Controller
Time Domain 143 (2)
Frequency Domain 145 (2)
Disturbance Decoupling 147 (12)
Applications for Disturbance Decoupling 149 (10)
Feed-Forward 159 (16)
Feed-Forward for the General System 160 (10)
Nonideal Power Conversion and Feedback 162 (4)
Increasing the Bandwidth versus 166 (1)
Feed-Forward Compensation
Imperfect Knowledge of the Plant 167 (2)
Overshoot to Nonsquare Waves 169 (1)
Feed-Forward for the Double-Integrating 170 (2)
Plant
Experiment 8-1: Feed-Forward 172 (3)
Filters in Control Systems 175 (22)
Filters in Control Systems 176 (4)
Filters in the Controller 176 (3)
Filters in the Power Converter 179 (1)
Filters in the Feedback 179 (1)
Filter Passband 180 (9)
Low-Pass Filters 180 (6)
Notch 186 (3)
Implementation of Filters 189 (8)
Passive Analog Filters 189 (1)
Active Analog Filters 190 (1)
Switched Capacitor Filters 190 (1)
IIR Digital Filters 190 (4)
FIR Digital Filters 194 (3)
Section II Modeling 197 (62)
Introduction to Modeling 199 (22)
What Is a Model? 200 (1)
Frequency-Domain Modeling 200 (2)
How the Frequency Domain Works 200 (2)
Time-Domain Modeling 202 (19)
State Variables 202 (3)
The Modeling Environment 205 (3)
The Model 208 (11)
Frequency Information from Time-Domain 219 (2)
Models
Nonlinear Behavior and Time Variation 221 (28)
LTI versus Non-LTI 221 (1)
Non-LTI Behavior 222 (2)
Slow Variation 222 (1)
Fast Variation 223 (1)
Dealing with Nonlinear Behavior 224 (3)
Modify the Plant 224 (1)
Tuning for Worst Case 225 (1)
Compensate in the Controller (``Gain 226 (1)
Scheduling'')
Ten Examples of Nonlinear Behavior 227 (22)
Plant Saturation 227 (3)
Deadband 230 (2)
Reversal Shift 232 (1)
Variation of Apparent Inertia 233 (1)
Friction 234 (5)
Quantization 239 (1)
Deterministic Feedback Error 239 (2)
Power Converter Saturation 241 (2)
Pulse Modulation 243 (3)
Hysteresis Controllers 246 (3)
Seven Steps to Developing a Model 249 (10)
Determine the Purpose of the Model 250 (2)
Training 250 (1)
Troubleshooting 250 (1)
Testing 251 (1)
Predicting 251 (1)
Model in SI Units 252 (1)
Identify the System 252 (4)
Identifying the Plant 253 (1)
Identifying the Power Converter 254 (1)
Identifying the Feedback 255 (1)
Identifying the Controller 256 (1)
Build the Block Diagram 256 (1)
Select Frequency or Time Domain 257 (1)
Write the Model Equations 257 (1)
Verify the Model 257 (2)
Section III Motion Control 259 (116)
Encoders and Resolvers 261 (28)
Accuracy, Resolution, and Response 263 (1)
Encoders 264 (1)
Resolvers 265 (4)
Software Resolver-to-Digital Converter 266 (1)
Resolver Error and Multispeed Resolvers 267 (2)
Impact of Resolution on Velocity Estimation 269 (4)
Higher Gain Generates More Noise 270 (1)
Filtering the Noise 271 (2)
Experiment 13-1: Resolution Noise 273 (1)
Alternatives for Increasing Resolution 273 (3)
The 1/T Interpolation or Clock Pulse 273 (2)
Counting Method
Sine Encoders 275 (1)
Cyclic Error and Torque Ripple 276 (5)
Experiment 13-1 (Continued): Cyclic Errors 281 (4)
and Torque Ripple
Relationship between Error Magnitude and 282 (1)
Ripple
Relationship between Velocity and Ripple 283 (1)
Relationship between Bandwidth and Ripple 283 (1)
Relationship between Inertia and Ripple 283 (1)
Effect of Filters 284 (1)
Effect of Changing the Error Harmonic 284 (1)
Effect of Raising Resolver Speed 284 (1)
Choosing a Feedback Device 285 (4)
Suppliers 286 (3)
Basics of the Electric Servomotor and Drive 289 (42)
Definition of a Drive 290 (1)
Definition of a Servo System 291 (1)
Basic Magnetics 292 (5)
Electromagnetism 295 (1)
The Right-Hand Rule 295 (1)
Completing the Magnetic Path 296 (1)
Electric Servomotors 297 (4)
Torque Ratings 298 (1)
Rotary and Linear Motion 299 (1)
Linear Motors 299 (2)
Permanent-Magnet (PM) Brush Motors 301 (10)
Creating the Winding Flux 302 (1)
Commutation 302 (1)
Torque Production 302 (1)
Electrical Angle versus Mechanical Angle 303 (2)
KT, the Motor Torque Constant 305 (1)
Back EMF 306 (1)
Control of PM Brush Motors 307 (3)
Brush Motor Strengths and Weaknesses 310 (1)
Brushless PM Motors 311 (15)
Windings of Brushless PM Motors 312 (1)
Sinusoidal Commutation 312 (2)
Phase Control of Brushless PM Motors 314 (7)
DQ Control of Brushless PM Motors 321 (3)
Comparing DQ and Phase Control 324 (2)
Six-Step Control of Brushless PM Motor 326 (4)
Sensing Position for Commutation 327 (3)
Comparison of Brush and Brushless Motors 330 (1)
Induction and Reluctance Motors 330 (1)
Compliance and Resonance 331 (20)
Equations of Resonance 333 (3)
Resonance with Load Feedback 335 (1)
High-Frequency and Low-Frequency Resonance 336 (2)
Curing Resonance 338 (13)
Stiffen the Transmission 339 (1)